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The UN Security Council imposed sanctions on Libya in 1992 to press Tripoli to hand over two suspects wanted for the 1988 bombing of a US Pan American Airways airliner over Lockerbie, Scotland. The Council suspended (but did not lift) the sanctions against Libya in April 1999 after the Libyan government handed over the suspects for trial in a special court. Eventually the court found one of the two suspects guilty.
In August 2003, Libya accepted responsibility for the bombing and agreed to a $2.7 billion settlement. In return, London and Washington immediately began to push the Security Council to lift all UN sanctions against Tripoli. As a permanent member with veto power, France agreed in principle to lift the sanctions, but urged a delay so that it could negotiate increased Libyan indemnity payments to its own citizens in connection with the 1989 bombing of a French UTA airliner over Niger. The Security Council lifted sanctions in September 2003, and at the end of the year, Libya agreed to end efforts to produce nuclear weapons. Libya also began to offer contracts to big Western oil companies. Relations between Tripoli and the US and Europe have gradually normalized. In January 2008, Libya gained a non-permanent seat on the Security Council – a position the country will hold for two years.
This section looks at the original Council action to impose the sanctions and the debate that followed, later erosion of support for the sanctions, negotiations between Libya and the US-UK over the organization of the trial, aspects of the trial proceedings, and subsequent issues about lifting of the sanctions.
Sanctions
2003
Gaddafi: Send UN Inspectors (December 22, 2003)
Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi has granted permission to UN weapons inspectors to conduct checks for weapons of mass destruction. The move may lead to the end of US unilateral sanctions against the country. (Scotsman)
Libya's Blood Money Moves to Revive Oil Industry (October 14, 2003)
Libyan leader Muammar al-Gaddafi has announced the privatization of the Libyan oil sector. Big oil firms ponder a small Scottish firm's claim that its annual turnover would reach £30 billion in open trade with Libya, the world's sixth largest oil producer. (Vanguard)
Arms Suppliers Eye Post-Sanctions Libya (September 18, 2003)
Prior to the sanctions regime, Libya provided arms to rebel groups in Western Sahara and the Philippines. Several countries seek to resume trade with Libya, but some commodities for sale, including fast patrol boats and night-vision technology, raise eyebrows. (Inter Press Service)
End of Sanctions Opens Doors for Libya (September 13, 2003)
The Security Council ended its sanctions regime against Libya, although unilateral US sanctions will continue. Amnesty International welcomed the symbolic return of Libya to the international community, but urged the government to improve the human rights situation. (Associated Press)
Businesses Press for US to Lift Libya Sanctions (August 22, 2003)
Major US oil companies pressure the Bush administration to lift unilateral sanctions against Libya. The New York Times reports that the oil-rich country may revoke concessions to these companies if sanctions continue.
Eyes on France as UN Nears Vote on Libya Sanctions (August 18, 2003)
Lockerbie Deal to End Libya's Isolation (August 15, 2003)
The Libyan government has formally acknowledged responsibility for the bombing of a 1988 Pan Am flight and will pay reparations to the families of the 270 victims. While the UK pushes for the end of UN sanctions, the future of unilateral US-imposed sanctions remains in doubt. (Guardian)
Libya Accepts Responsibility for Lockerbie Bombing (April 30, 2003)
Libya has accepted responsibility for the 1988 Lockerbie bombing, a condition set by Washington for lifting UN and US sanctions. Simultaneously, Libyan officials have said they would give priority to negotiations with the four US oil companies. (New York Times)
Lessons from Qaddafi (March 14, 2003)
In its approach to Iraq, the Bush administration should learn from Libya that violence only leads to retaliation, perpetuating an ongoing cycle of undesirable consequences. The US bombed Libya in April 1986 for its alleged involvement in terrorism, and the country responded with more murders, kidnappings and terrorist attacks. (Foreing Policy In Focus)
Defying US Sanctions, Germans Want to Drill for Libya Oil ( May 9, 2001)
A German oil company, Wintershall, is eager to drill Libyan oil fields formerly held by the US company Oasis before imposition of sanctions in 1986. The US threatens to impose sanctions on Wintershall if it goes ahead. (Washington Post)
Allies Tell Libya to Accept UN Demands and End Isolation (March 15, 2002)
The US and the United Kingdom pressed Libya to comply with UN resolutions to allow the formal lifting of UN sanctions and an end to unilateral US sanctions. However, Washington remains more skeptical than London towards normalizing relations with Tripoli. (The Guardian)
> Qaddafi's Money Manager Shows How Libya Thwarts US Sanctions (October 25, 2001)
Mohamed Ali El Huwej, Qaddafi's money manager, tells Bloomberg News he has developed a system for making global investments -- using minority stakes, shell companies and interlocking share holdings -- that won't attract the attention of U.S. authorities. He calls it ``financial engineering.''
EU Appeals to US Over Iran Libya Sanctions Act (July 17, 2001)
Foreign ministers of the European Union appealed to the US not to extend its Iran Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA). The ILSA gives the US government permission to impose sanctions against third-country firms doing business in Iran or Libya. (Reuters)
Cheney Panel Seeks Review Of Sanctions (April 19, 2001)
The US is revising its sanction regime not only on Iraq, but also on Iran and Libya in order to meet energy needs in the country. (Washington Post)
Libya Hopeful of ''Good Results'' in Having UN Sanctions Lifted (March 20, 2001)
After a second round of talks with Libya, the US and the UK have not changed their standpoint, but the meeting help to establish a dialogue and clarify everyone's position. (Associated Press)
Libya Presses for End to Sanctions (February 14, 2001)
After a meeting with the US and UK, the Libyan ambassador says he is optimistic that an agreement could be reached soon. (BBC)
Britain Will Urge UN to Lift Libya Sanctions (January 30, 2001)
Because "Libya in 2001 is a very different place from Libya in 1988," according to a UK official, Britain will support a new UN resolution to lift the embargo, as long as Tripoli accepts a set of conditions including renouncement to terrorism. (Independent)
Delay Expected on Measures to End Libya Sanctions (December 29, 2000)
Various Security Council members want to see the inactive sanctions against Libya formally put to rest, but the US and UK say that they will oppose an end to sanctions until the Lockerbie trial is over. (Reuters)
Switzerland Suspends Sanctions Against Libya (April 9, 1999)
Following the lead of the UN, Switzerland suspended sanctions against Libya after the surrender two suspects in the lockerbie bombing case.
Libyan Suspects Handed Over; UN Sanctions Suspended (April 5, 1999)
Libya handed the suspects in this case over to Scottish authorities. This article looks at what may be next while recapping a little of the history of this situation.
>The Iran and Libya Sanctions Act of 1996: Results to Date (July 23, 1997)
Testimony by Jeffrey J. Schott, Senior Fellow, Institute for International Economics before the Committee on International Relations, US House of Representatives.
Security Council Renews Disputed Libya Sanctions (July 1995)
Several Council members criticise the ongoing sanctions against Libya but the United States and Britain manage to gain another renewal, with the support of France.
Geoffrey Grenville-Wood on the Legality of the Libya Sanctions (1993)
A critical view by a distinguished international lawyer from Canada.
The Trial
2009
PanAm 103 Over Lockerbie (September 3, 2009)
Before Libyan citizen Ali al-Megrahi was charged for the bombing of PanAm 103 over Lockerbie, the official scenario endorsed by the US, the UK and Scotland implicated Iran, Syria and the Palestinian group PFLP-GC. It was only in 1990, two years after the bombing, that Megrahi and Libya became the prime suspects. By promoting this new official version, the US was hoping to secure the support of Iran and Syria during the Gulf War. (Global Research)
2001
UN Official Criticizes Lockerbie Decision (April 9, 2001)
Hans Koeschler, an expert on international law appointed by Kofi Annan to observe the Lockerbie trial says that the court's decision has been influenced by political considerations. (Associated Press)
Libyan Guilty of Lockerbie Bombing (January 31, 2001)
After eighty-four days of trial, the Scottish court unanimously convicted one of the two accused, while the other was acquitted. Speculation about Gaddafi’s involvement in the bombing remains. And Libya may have to wait a while before sanctions are lifted.(BBC)
Loss of Face at Lockerbie (October 6, 2000)
The credibility of US intelligence agencies suffered as CIA cables were released in the Lockerbie trial - accompanied by a series of evasive answers from an FBI investigator and a poor showing by the witness, Abdul Majid Giaka, who spent three years on the CIA payroll. (New York Times)
Libyan Double Agent Testifies in Lockerbie Bomb Trial (September 27, 2000)
The testimony of the double agent Mr. Abdul Majid against the two defendents seemed a little unsure and was attacked for its credibility. One mystery question is that as a double US agent - working at the airport and knowing of the bombing, why did he not tip anybody off about the bomb? (New York Times)
Lockerbie Bombing Prosecution Hits Roadblocks at Trial in the Netherlands (July 17, 2000)
The UN sanction against Libya was imposed to blame suspects of the Lockerbie bombings. However, the prosecution against Libya is weakening as feeble testimonies and lack of cooperation from the witnesses hides the case in a thick fog. (New York Times)
EU Lifts Sanctions Against Libya (September 13, 1999)
Following a report by Kofi Annan on Libya's decision to renounce terrorism and respect UN resolutions, EU Ministers unanimously decided to lift sanctions against Libya imposed in 1992 in connection with the Lockerbie bombing. (Pan African News Agency)
UN Retains Libya Sanctions (July 10, 1999)
The Lockerbie suspects are in custody in Holland and the Security Council has resolved to lift all sanctions on Libya. (BBC News)
New Libyan Cooperation Leads to Renewed Ties with Britain (July 8, 1999)
Britain announced it would resume diplomatic relations with Libya after a 15-year freeze. The move comes after Libya handed over the two Lockerbie bombing suspects and agreed to cooperate in an investigation of the fatal shooting of a London police officer in 1984. (New York Times)
US Threatens to Veto Lifting Libyan Sanctions (July 8, 1999)
Washington Post article on the qualifications the US is placing on the lifting of sanctions against Libya, including their cooperation with the trial of two Libyan intelligence agents suspected in the bombing of Flight 103.
US Resists Move to Lift UN Sanctions (July 7, 1999)
While a number of Security Council members, including the three African states, Gabon, Gambia and Namibia, advocate the lifting of sanctions against Libya, the US shows no willingness of compromise on the issue. (Inter Press Service)
US Opposes Lifting UN Sanctions on Libya (July 1, 1999)
The US has made it clear that it considers lifting sanctions on Libya "premature" at this point. (CNN Online)
US Breaks Ice With Libya (June 12, 1999)
Breaking a 18-year long freeze in diplomatic relations, Libya and the US held talks concerning the lifting of UN sanctions. But Libya has yet to fulfill a number of conditions before the US is ready to make concessions, according to this BBC Online article.
US and Libya to Hold Talks After 18-Year Hiatus (June 4, 1999)
In an important step toward normalizing diplomatic relations, ambassadors of the US, the United Kingdom and Libya will hold talks hosted by Secretary-General Kofi Annan to discuss how to proceed on the issue of lifting sanctions against Libya.
The Handover
UN Prepares For Handover Of Lockerbie Suspects (April 2, 1999)
Once the men are in the Netherlands, Secretary-General is to write a letter to the Security Council that would automatically suspend sanctions imposed on Libya in 1992 and tightened in 1993.
Libya Notifies AL on Agreement with the UN on Lockerbie (March 22, 1999)
If the suspects are found guilty, they would be detained in a prison affiliated to the UN in Scotland.
Libyan Court Wants Americans Arrested for 1986 Bombing (March 22, 1999)
State prosecutors were told to make haste in arresting nine Americans wanted in connection with the 1986 bombings of Tripoli and the Libyan port of Benghazi.
UN Welcomes Formal Letter On Lockerbie Surrender (March 20, 1999)
Libya had agreed that the two suspects would be available to the Secretary-General on or before April 6, 1999.
Mandela In Lockerbie Talks With Gaddafi (March 19, 1999)
Mandela plans to address Libya's General People's Congress which will decide whether to send the two suspects to the Netherlands.
UN Encouraged By Libya But Has No Official Response (March 2, 1999)
Secretary General denied that Security Council offered the ultimatum but he said he did discuss with the Council about "reasonable" time period for handover.
Libya Says Lockerbie Deadline Unacceptable (February 28, 1999)
Libya wants a guarantee of justice before they let the two suspects appear in court.
A Warning at the UN to Libyans (February 27, 1999)
The United States and Britain threatened increased sanctions against Libya unless it hands over the suspects in the Lockerbie bombing case within 30 days. Kofi Annan responded with support. Libya is looking for assurances that the sanctions will be lifted if it complies.
Dutch Trial Deal for Bomb Suspects (February 15, 1999)
Follow-up of the talks regarding the trial of the Lockerbie suspects. Two salient issues are the place of incarceration of the suspects if found guilty, and Libya's insistence that UN sanctions should be lifted rather than simply suspended as the UN Security Council proposed.
UN Could Monitor Lockerbie Men in Jail (February 12, 1999)
This article examines the question of the erosion of hostility against Libya by looking at the proposal of a UN designation to prevent interrogation of the Lockerbie suspects.
Confusing Words From Libya On the 2 Lockerbie Suspects (December 7, 1998)
Contrasting opinions about the progress of Lockerbie case after the meeting of Colonel Qaddafi and Secretary General Annan.
Libya Rebuffs UN Chief on Bomb Trial (December 6, 1998)
The continuing problems of agreeing arrangements for a trial of the suspected Lockerbie bombers.
Documents
Letter from the Arab Committee of Seven on the Sanctions Against Libya (July 1, 1998)
Iran and Libya Sanctions Act
Text of P.L. 104-172 (H.R. 3107). Enacted August 5, 1996.
Iran and Libya Sanctions Act of 1996: Fact sheet
Posted by the Department of State.
